INTRODUCTION
Paludism (of Latin paludis, marsh [1]), also called malaria (of Italian badly' aria, bad air [2]), is a parasitosis due to a protozoon transmitted by the puncture of the female of a mosquito, the anophèle, causing intermittent fevers. With 300 to 500 1,5 and patient million to 2,7 million death per annum, paludism remains the tropical parasitosis most important. 80% of the cases are recorded in sub-Saharan Africa, where they mainly concern the children of less than five years and the women pregnant (WHO, 2005) (see the areas at the risks).
The cause of the disease was discovered on November 6, 1880 at the military hospital of Constantine (Algeria) by a doctor of the French Army, Alphonse Laveran, who accepted the Nobel Prize of medicine and physiology in 1907. It is into 1897 that the English doctor Ronald Ross (Nobel Prize 1902) proved that the mosquitos (Anopheles) were the vectors of the malaria. Previously, it was the bad emanating air of the marshes which was accused.
The parasites Plasmodium (especially P. falciparum - called in the past praecox -, P. vivax, more rarely P. oval and P. malariae) is transmitted by the puncture of the female of a mosquito called anophèle (Anopheles kind). The parasite prevails in an endemic state, infects the hepatic cells of the victim then circulates in blood, by colonizing red blood corpuscles (red globules) and by destroying Paludism gold malaria
Definition
Malaria is most frequent off the parasitic infections observed in the world.
The transmission off the parasite is gives by puncture off has mosquito, the female anophele. In year exceptional way, it edge Be gives by blood transfusion.
The serious clinical demonstrations observed in unquestionable boxes are related to the fast multiplication off Plasmodium falciparum in the capillaries (small blood vessels) off the brain with anoxia (major reduction in the oxygen contribution).
Causes and factors off risk
Responsible The infectious agent has parasite off the Plasmodium kind. Several species off Plasmodium repugnant edge the man:
* Plasmodium falciparum: re-press the most frequent species and especially more dangerous;
* Plasmodium oval: is found only in Black Africa;
* Plasmodium vivax: is not found in Black Africa;
* Plasmodium malariae: rarer than the preceding species.
The parasitizes is present in intertropical Al the hot and wet areas, with the exception off the French West Indies, off Tahiti, off the Meeting and New Caledonia. The anophèle put off urban centers South America and Southeast Asia have well have zones crossed by the tourist turns to the Far East.
Lastly, it was described boxes off paludisms known have “airports off” (mosquito transported in the baggage hold off has planes coming from has tropical country, box observed in countries with climate moderated in particular in France).
.Causes
Paludism is caused by parasitic offspecies Plasmodium, themselves transmitted by the mosquitos off the kind Anopheles.
Plasmodium, parasite off paludism
One sporozoïte Plasmodium cross-country race the cytoplasm off intestinal year epithelial concealment, seen by electronic micrography false colors.
Icon off detailDetailed article: Plasmodium.
Paludism is caused by one parasite protozoon kind Plasmodium (Phylum apicomplexa). At the human ones, paludism, primarily, is caused by P. falciparum (dominating in tropical areas), P. malariae, P. oval (the rarest species, except West Africa) and P. vivax (the least demanding species in temperature).
P. falciparum is the most common causes off the infections and person in load for approximately 80% off Al the boxes off paludism like 90% off the deaths[]. Plasmodium also the birds, the reptiles, the monkeys, the chimpanzees and the rodents repugnant (warm-blooded animal). One reported boxes off human simiesques infections with species off the paludism, off which P. knowlesi, P. inui, P. cynomolgi[44], P. simiovale, P. brazilianum, P. schwetzi and P. simium. However, except for P. knowlesi, thesis infections remain limited and off No importance in terms off public health. Avian paludism edge kill chickens and turkeys, goal this disease does not causes notable economic ramming with agriculture[45]. However, since it was introduced by the human ones, paludism decimated the species endemic birds offHawaii, which had evolved/moved, in its absence, without defense against this one. Plasmodium appears itself have one protozoon very small (1 to 2 µ according to the forms). Colouring with May-Grünwald-Giemsa show that it consists off one cytoplasm blade blue surrounding one vacuole nutritive clear and containing has red core and brown-gilded gold black pigment (hémozoïne).
The evolutionary cycle off Plasmodium is rather complex and requires two hosts, has final host: man and has primary education host: the female hematophagus off mosquito off the kind has Anopheles (off the Greek anôphelês meaning: useless). From has strictly biological off view, the true final host is the mosquito (the sexuée reproduction parasitizing itanophèle). Replicative The man would Be only one host intermediate in his cycles. Nevertheless, for let us reasons anthropocentric, it is considered that the vector is not the man goal the mosquito and consequently that this zoonose is off the standard zooanthroponose.
The anophèle, vector off paludism
One Anopheles albimanus nourishing blood one has human ARM
Icon off detailDetailed article: Anophèle.
Technique off hunting off the anophèle
Only the females are hematophagi. The males whose only activities are reproduction species and to steal die die to nourish juice off seedlings and nectar C not transmitted the disease.
The females anophèles nourish themselves preferably the night, and start to seek to their meal in the twilight, continuously during the night until they found it.
When the human ones gold the animals breathe, they produce CO2 and to their body releases constantly from heat and moisture (transpiration) like much off other gravitational substances likeacid lactic however it sebum. The mosquitos, have well have other insects stitchers, are whitebait to detect Al thesis emanations since long distances (± 20 m for CO2) and are immediately attracted by thesis sources. The mosquitos, have well, are also attracted by the alcohol vapors that by the dark colors and in particular the black. With this intention, they steal die die (maximum 2 km) by using to their sensors.
Confused Not to the various mosquitos vectors
Name off zoonose
Cause
Transmission
Vector
Chikungunya
Virus
The day
female Aedes
Dengue
Virus
The day
female Aedes
Japanese Encephalite
Virus
The night
female Culex
Yellow fever
Virus
The day
female Aedes
Paludism
Parasite
The night
female Anopheles
Cycle parasite At Anopheles
vector parasite off have its primary education host is the female one mosquito kind Anophèle. The Young mosquitos introduce the parasite for the first time when they nourish blood (necessary to this female for its production off eggs) off year infected human subject. The infected mosquito transport then them gamétocytes Plasmodium in theirs salivary nipples. Ounce swallowed, they not in blood while crossing itepithelium salivary to different Be in gamètes male and females which link themselves to form one zygote mobile called ookinète which penetrates the stomachic wall to become one oocyst spherical whose core will divide without end to form sporozoïtes. The duration off this maturation is narrowly depends one the outside temperature. For example for P. falciparum : No maturation in lower share off 18°C gold with the signal off 35°C, it is maximum towards 24°C. When the oocyst station-wagons, it slackens the sporozoïtes which migrate in the body off the mosquito to salivary nipples from where they edge, At the time off has new meal off blood, to repugnant A new human host, while crossing skin, with salivate also containing anticoagulants and off enzymes.
. Cycle parasite At the human one
- Hepatic Phase
Thin spindle off 12 µ /1 µ, it sporozoïte infectious injected with the man, At the time off this puncture by one female off anophèle infected, circulates quickly (less than one half hour) in blood to the liver in which it is sequestration in great adhesive share thanks to the let us reasons off protein majority off its envelope (protein circumsporozoïte gold CSP = Cysteine String Protein), for then infecting them hépatocytes. This hepatic pre-érythrocytaire crisis which will last 6 days for P. falciparum, 8 days for P. vivax, 9 days for P. oval and probably 12 days for P. malariae will Al the parasite to continues its cycle. The sporozoïtes which will not reach the liver will Be is eliminated by phagocytes, that is to say unable to continues to their evolution yew they reach others bodies.
With first transformation rounds this form “cryptozoïte” (off the Greek κρυπτός (kruptos) meaning “hidden”) in year element uninucléé (with only one core) called trophozoïte who is the occasion for the parasite to multiply directly (it is always thus for P. falciparum), by schizogony, during one week At fifteen days leading to enormous schizonte (name given to protozoon when it becomes activates after the phase off incubation) from 40 to 80 µ. This blue body (because consisted off one cytoplasm blade blue when it is coloured with May-Grünwald-Giemsa) bud, while losing its mobility, in manner to emitted blisters, containing the Young people mérozoïtes who will Be transferred in blood, thus initiating the training course érythrocytaire, i.e. the infection off the red globules.
However, nap mérozoïtes off P. oval however P. vivax edge remain hidden in the liver several years, even the whole life for P. malariae, before being reactivated in successive waves. This phase off the parasite is called “sleeping phase”: Plasmodium does not retort themselves goal sleeps, from where the names which are given to him At this time: “hypnozoïte” (off the Greek Ὕπνος which is Hypnos the ancient Greek god off the sleep).
Phase off transfer
The blisters are released in the hepatic sinusoids (vessels capillaries liver making the junction between this one and the blood network) to join blood circulation then and to spread has flood Young people there off mérozoïtes “pre-érythrocytaires” loans to repugnant them red globules. Each concealment off liver infected contains approximately 100.000 mérozoïtes (each schizonte is whitebait to produce 20.000 mérozoïtes). It has off true technical “ Trojan Horse ” which is used young stag to not from the hepatic concealments to blood. The imagery in vivo showed in 2005-2006 At rodents that the mérozoïtes were whitebait to manufacture dead concealments enabling them to leave the liver for blood circulation while thus escaping immune system). They At the same time seem to guide this “vehicle” and to hide there by masking the biochemical signals which alert them normally macrophages. There are perhaps there has new track for activates drugs gold one vaccinate anti-training course exo-érythrocytaire before the training course off the invasion off the red globules.
Blood phase
Long At the beginning off the blood phase] : the mérozoïtes are joined with red globules, invade them, develop to with it in trophozoïtes then divide there (schizontes). While being diffused, the mérozoïtes make burst them red globules (it is ithémolyse). Thesis brutal are and synchronous burstings which are At the origin off the accesses off fever. The time which master keys between the penetration off has parasite in one red globule and the bursting off this one rather constant and is reached in the human being 48 hours for P. vivax, P. oval and P. falciparum (third fevers) and 72 hours for P. malariae (quartan fever). The destruction off the red globules one causes weaken and, in the box off cerebral paludism (to see under one this subject), died intervenes following year obstruction off the blood vessels off brain by the infected red globules. This destruction off red globules is accompanied by the release byhémozoïne, which will disturb the operation offhypothalamus (production off cytokine like TNFα) and to causes the very strong ones fevers who edge go untilhyperpyrexie.
The bursting off the scraper schizontes gold “rivet washers” finishes the first schizogonic cycle érythrocytaire while releasing in blood, with waste off metabolism plasmodial (pigments and cellular linen remains off the red globule), has new generation off plasmodiums, them mérozoïtes “érythrocytaires” whitebait to reinfect other red globules.
With regular succession off similar cycles will follow, which will Be gradually replaced (them immunizing defenses organizing itself) by gamogonic sexuées cycles érythrocytaires preparing the forms. The trophozoïtes stop dividing and modify to their nucléo-plasmatic ratio. Thesis forms off trophozoïtes with one core bulky and one cytoplasm densified are gamétocytes males and females, which will remain one standby in blood.
The parasites At the time off this phase C not cuts any chances off survival in the human being: they remain alive A score off days then disappear. They will Be whitebait to continues to their evolution only in the mosquito. At this time yew one anophèle female pricks has sick person, it absorbs gamétocytes contained in blood, and has new cycle, sexué this time, begins in the mosquito. The sporozoïtes produced by this reproduction not in the salivated off the mosquito, which repugnant edge has new host, and so one…
Note
For P. Falciparum it is Al there it cycle life. With the others Plasmodium, nap pre-érythrocytaires mérozoïtes, C not profit blood directly, goal attack the new ones hépatocytes : it is the beginning off the secondary cycles exo-érythrocytaires which will maintain in the liver the parasitosis during two gold three years for P. Oval, 3 to 5 years gold more for P. Vivax and during the whole life for P. Malariae.
Animation and diagram off the parasitic cycle off Plasmodium [
* Animation Abode Flash Player
Diagram Animation and diagram of the parasitic cycle of Plasmodium [
* Animation Abode Flash Player
Schém Animation and diagram of the parasitic cycle of Plasmodium [
* Animation Abode Flash Player
* Diagram
* causes off Other transmission
The parasites edge also Be transmitted by placental way off the mother to foetus (congenital paludism), by division off has syringe soiled gold by blood transfusion, although this last rare transmission resource is rather].
Diagnosis
Symptoms
symptoms paludism include fever, off tremors intermittent, off arthralgies (articular breads), off nauseas and vomiting, offweaken caused byhémolyse, ithémoglobinurie, and off convulsions. Feelings off tinglings edge appear in the skin, particular when paludism is caused by P. falciparum. The most traditional symptom off paludism is the cyclic repetition off has sudden feeling off cold followed off shivers and off fever and sudations during furnace to six hours, occurring every two days during the infections due to P. vivax and P. oval, but every three days for those due to P. malariae]. P. falciparum edge involve fevers the every 36 to 48 hours gold has continuous and less marked fever. For let us reasons still little included/understood, goal being whitebait to Be related to intracranial presses, the children reached off paludism often cuts year abnormal posture, indicating severe cerebral ramming paludism edge involve cognitive delays, in particular in the children. It one causes weaken general for one period off fast cerebral development, have well have direct cerebral ramming. The neurological cerebral ramming results from the paludism to which the children vulnerable are more[54],[55].
Serious paludism is caused quasi exclusively by the infections off P. falciparum and generally occurs 6 to 14 days after the infection]. Standard This off paludism edge involve it coma and death yew it is not treated. The pregnant children and women vulnerable are particularly. Other symptoms include splénomégalie (enlargement off spleen), off cephalgias severe (headaches), itischaemia cerebral, ithepatomegaly (enlargement off the liver), ithypoglycemia, the hémoglobinurie have well have renal problems. Yew the kidneys cease functioning, has particular fever edge occur, when the haemoglobin off the red globules flees in the urine. Severe paludism edge progress extremely quickly and causes death in A few days even has few hours In the most serious boxes, the death misses edge exceed 20%, even with important care. In the endemic zones, the treatments total are often not very satisfactory and the death misses for Al the boxes off paludism edge reach one one ten]. Later one, off the problems off development were brought back for the children having suffered from periods off severe paludism
Chronic paludism edge Be caused by P. vivax and P. oval not by drank P. falciparum. In the box off chronic paludism, the disease edge reappear several months gold years after the exposure, because off the latent presence off parasitic in the liver. Thus, one boat say that has off subject is cured paludism simply by observing the disappearance the parasitic off blood flow. The longest incubation period brought back for P. vivax is 30 years. Approximately has box off paludism P. vivax one five in the moderate zones it implieshibernation with the hypnozoites (the relapses begin the year after the puncture off the mosquito.
Serious paludism is often diagnosed in Africa in the place off other diseases, preventing to their effective treatment. In the endemic zones, parasitemy does not Al to diagnosis the serious boxes off paludism, because this method edge diagnosis other parasitic diseases. Recent investigations suggest that retinopathy malariale edge Be better than the other methods to distinguish the coma paludic and non-paludic[ Prevention]
The methods used to prevent the disease from spreading itself, but to protect the inhabitants from the endemic zones, include disease prevention by the wrestling off drugs, eradication off the mosquitos and prevention off the punctures off mosquitos. For paludism edge exist continuously At has place, one needs has combination off factors: strong density off population, strong misses transmission off off human to the mosquitos and reciprocally. Yew one off thesis factors decreases, the parasite ends up disappearing, have in North America and Europe. Conversely, the parasite edge Be reintroduced in year area and to survives it yew thesis factors are joined together there.
There does not exist vaccinate present At against paludism, goal the search for A vaccinates has very activates sector.
Some researchers affirm that the effective prevention off paludism would Be more financially than its length-term treatment; the expenses to Be engaged for that important are too for poorest drank. The economist Jeffrey Sachs estimate have well have paludism could Be controlled with 3 billion US dollars per annum. So reaching them objectify the millenium for the off development, money currently Al with the fight against AIDS should Be reallocated with the prevention off paludism, which would profit more with the African economy.
Some countries like Brazil, Érythrée, India gold Vietnam succeeded in reducing the plague off paludism. The analysis off thesis programs shows that many factors had to Be joined together to successfully fight against the disease, that it is off the financings, the action off the State and ONG, gold off the concrete action off the social workers.
Means off fighting the mosquito gold off protecting themselves nap]
One edge fight the vector off paludism (the female anophèle) by several means off effective prevention, which edge prove to Be yew they are well implemented.
The true problem off this prevention is the very high cost off the treatments for the touched populations. Effective Indeed, it edge Be At the travellers, goal the countries in the process off development, which principal are the victims off this disease, bread to organize very effective actions. Give One edge for proof the example off the island off the Meeting where paludism prevailed off have in the other islands the area (Madagascar and Mauritius) in particular. The Meeting being has French territory off overseas, the problem off the too high cost did not exist and one could éradiquer the malaria off this island without difficulty.
Two modes off prevention are applied in the countries concerned. They aim one the one hand protecting the populations against the punctures from mosquitos and, one the other hand, At eliminating to lath by the installation from various means. Principal The goal off this disease prevention is to limit the population off mosquitos vectors disease and thus to try éradiquer this plague.
In the years 1960, the principal method used for éradiquer the female anophèles was the massive uses offinsecticides. More used was it DDT (Dichloro-Diphényl-Trichloréthane). This method boron its fruits in many areas where paludism was completely éradiqué. Unfortunately, the intensive uses off the DDT supported the selection off resistant mosquitos. This resistance was named KDR (Knock Down Resistance : resistance to the effect off shock). Moreover, it edge generate intoxications and diseases in the population have it was the box in India however it was used in year abusive way in agriculture. Although this product is completely interdict in Europe since 1972 and that, since 1992, it is classified byWHO POP like (persist organic pollutant), this same WHO seems to reconsider its position by preaching new recommendations relating to the uses this pesticide off (exclusive intended for the fight against paludism inside off the buildings uses)[85]. And yet, incontestably, the DDT is:
* persisting : its half-life is 15 years, i.e. yew one pulverizes 10 kg in A field, 15 years afterwards, there will remain 5 kg butt it, after 30 years 2,5 kg and so one natural When manufactures has complex molecule, it manufacture, into same time, the molecule off one enzyme who ranges it, it that it boat make for unknown molecules like the DDT. organic molecules introduced by the man thus violate this rule according to which for each molecule which is built, year enzyme destroyed. They thus generate, according to to their stability, them toxicity and to their persistence in the environment;
* dispersive : one found nap in snows offThe Arctic;
* bio cumulative : the animals which in absorb C not die butt it, goal C not manages to eliminate it. They it blind in to their greases and one finds great concentrations off them in the animals off the signal off the food chain. One the other hand, its toxicity is preaches to debate although year ingestion off 35 G edge lethal Be for has person off 70 kg.
To replaces the DDT, which proves to Be dangerous and less and less off effective, the alternate means possible are in order to fight the vector off paludism
* draining off the marshes (without upsetting the ecological system), drainage off stagnant toilets where the larvae develop off anophèles (year old abandoned car and filled off toilets by the rains is sufficient with the mosquito to lay there its eggs);
* anti-larval fight by vegetable oil gold oil spreading and uses off widespread soluble insecticides one the surface off stagnant toilets, to try to limit the births off anophèles gold to prevent larvae to like to breathe one the surface. Measurements very little advisable completely anti-ecological bus ;
* sowing off toilets with the predatory ones off the anophèles gold off to their larvae like some molluscs gold fish (tilapias, guppys, gambusies, aphanius)[87] ;
* reintroduction, and protection, off the varieties off chiroptères insectivorous where they disappeared (A beats edge swallow butt half off its weight in insects in one night)[88];
* targeted starting from the sequencing off genome mosquito[89]. This genome offers, amongst other things, has off catalogue the increase in constrained off detoxification and obstructed mutant which code proteins aimed by insecticidal aces well have variations off nucleotides individual, called SNPs (pronounce SNIPS) (individual nucleotide polymorphisms) which is in the genome:
o employment offinsects repellant and offinsecticides only targeted against the anophèle;
o dispersion off male anophèles deads in nature;
o genetic interventions one the species vectrices but, in one unspecified future, with vaccinate blocking the transmission in inducing antibodies preventing the maturation off the training courses sexués off parasite At the anophèle.
Effective thesis measurements are only one one limited territory. It is very difficult to apply them one has unintermitting scale such have Africa.
Each one, one has purely individual basis, edge avoid the punctures off anophèles by mechanical, physical and chemical measurements: let custom recall before very that the anophèle has has night activity, starting to prick with fallen the night, and resting the day in the dwellings.
* installation off mosquito Nets (meshs lower than 1,5 mm) impregnated off perméthrine however off derived from pyrethrinoid. Off more in more thesis mosquito Nets are provided At very democratic prices (maximum 1,70 $) even free with the populations off the zones off endémie. Effective thesis mosquito Nets are during 3 to 5 years according to the model and them conditions off uses;
* installation off netting mosquito Net to the Windows;
* use off insecticidal one has small scale: pulverization insecticides intradomicilaires (pyrethrinoid, DDT,…) in dwellings (rooms to Be slept);
* installation off air conditioning in the dwellings to make to lower the temperature and to brew the air (the mosquito cuts horror off air volume displacements which disturb it in its displacements and in its sensory faculty to find its target);
* after laying down it sun: wearing off full, long clothing and off clear color and alcohol abstinence (the anophèles have well attracted by the sunk colors, in particular the black, than by alcohol vapors);
* application off repulsive cream one the skin gold clothing have to lay off down sun. Off Al the repulsive ones off synthesis, those which contain DEET (NR, N-diethyl-m-toluamide) efficient are most. The DEET does not kill the insects goal its vapors discourage from them being posed gold climbing one the person.
Generally, the products concentrated between 25 and effective 30% off DEET are most over the longest period (± 8 H against the crawling insects and from 3 to 5 a.m. against the anophèles). They are also regarded have inoffensive for adult people gold children off more than 2 years yew the concentration does not exceed 10% for to lath. To proscribe in the pregnant woman and the infant off less than 3 months. The products concentrated with more than 30% are not approved any more.
The marketed products are to Be applied to same the skin gold to clothing gold the mosquito Nets. Attention however so that they deteriorate the plastics, some synthetic fabrics like nylon, rubber, leather and painted gold varnished surfaces. Direct To also take attention with the eyes and the inhalation with the products out off spray like with ingestion. The applicators provided with has ball will thus Be preferred.
Transcutanée The resorption is 50% into 6 H and elimination will Be urinary. The not eliminated share (30%) will Be stored in the skin and greases.
Thursday, May 28, 2009
member of group
Sawadogo s jean lauris
Ouamini Hermann Zoubiese
Tiendrebéogo Pelagie
Zié Marie Richard
Congo Hamidou
Conte: The quarell of the Dog and Cat
At the beginning of everything, Dad dog and Mr. Cat Dog were good friends. They lived in the same case, how good brothers. One day they went to the market, bought a jar of butter, recovered him of salt and whit a clean cloth and white.
Then they were to, in their field, planting yams.
So said cat:
-dad dog, a cousin asked me to be today, godfather of his childl.
-Go, cat, dad dog did, I will work for both of us.
The cat went to the case and discovered the pot of butter, removed salt, ate a piece of butter, recovered the pot and came back.
-What called the godson; asked the dog.
He called Begun.
The dog said: funny name.
The next day, how they worked in the field, Mr cat exclaimed:
-They call me to be godfather to other cousins.
The dog said: Ah!
The cat went.
He still ate butter and returned.
-What is your second godchild?
-Mi - eaten
Funny name, "said dad dog.
The next day in the field, the cat suddenly said:
Oh no. They call me again. This time, I won't go. I don't want to leave you always work.
-What's there? Asked the dog.
-they asked me again to be godfather. But I want to help you. I won't go.
Go-go, sir cat, dad dog said. he must not confuse you with me to your friends.
-The cat went and ate the rest of the butter and returned.
-Well! Dad dog questioned, and this one, how does the call - on.
All-over, said the cat.
Well, said the dog. Meanwhile, I dug yams to eat with our butter.
They came to the case, made of fire, prepared the table. Then Dad dog saw butter jar is empty. M. cat, gently, went the door.
dad dog, not happy, is stopped in front of the door. So Mr. swollen cat back, breathed and hid under the bed.
-Glamor, lazy! said dog angry . I understand why the three godchildren called Begun, Mi-eaten and All-finished. We will settle this matter.
He put his nose under the bed? The cat scratches the dog and said:
Why do you put in this state and to querell a friend for a wicked pot of better that the heat has melted, ask soonner your good friend that goes by dad dog turned his head the cat profited for jump him on his back scratch him on the ears, to pass through the door and climb the tree since that time the dog and cat are became hostile and refuses to reconcile.
Conte: The sacred forest
the people relate that a woman named Baloi, created a garden in a forest where no one should enter.
"how it was the first time since the creation of the world, that it was cultivated, this land prohibited, revealed him an extraordinary fertility, and the field produced in abundance, but would not Baloi harvest.
Some days, Tiémoko, her husband, who received foreign trade and land condimento is missing from the village, Baloi found more advantageous to use the products of field. She ordered to one of the servants to go pick a basket of okra.In all haste, Sarran, , went to the field, but as soon as it reaches out okra got to sing.
Charmed by a song as melodic sense that the young Sarran no more thought to picking the condiment or go home. On the contrary, it danced around the plant.
how the first servant was slow to return, Baloi appoints another. It found Sarran silent, turning and gesturing around the okra plant. Because it 's not heard the song - because it was a song of enchantment - it thougth natural that hiscorade amused her instead to doing what the master ordered. So without care for her, she deep directly on the plant, but just at that moment she heard the mysterious voice, seduices under the spell, she began to dance in cadence with Sarran.
A third and a fourth and a fifth sent home as a result of Sarran were included in the same conditions. So Baloi, nervous, went herself to the field with a long whip with intent determination to apply its servants deserved correction that merited their recklessness. When she saw them dancing in circles around plant of okra, she cried them on a tone of anger:
"I said you to do it quickly, because foreigners have hungry, and you are dancing here." But as soon as she reaches the hand about a big okra, she heard the song, and taken under the same charm as she began to dance in circles in the wake of his servants.
Intrigued by the prolonged absence of his wife and servants, Tiémoko Baloi's husband, warned the chief of land and the notables. We beat the drum of war and all that the village consisted of men went in search of the unfortunate. It was not long to find them in the sacred forest, a arm stretched and dancing in cadence . Suddenly, the song of okra became visible to all who were there.
Seeing this, the chief of land, the priest agrarian deities said: "Our fathers gave us this sacred forest that we must pass on intact to our children. For have profaning the place Baloi is held prisoner here".
The chief of land spray with the special couter,the woman and her servant, and on the spot they were removed from the magical influence of sacred wood. That's why with us, it is forbidden to grow in a sacred forest.
Sawadogo s jean lauris
Ouamini Hermann Zoubiese
Tiendrebéogo Pelagie
Zié Marie Richard
Congo Hamidou
Conte: The quarell of the Dog and Cat
At the beginning of everything, Dad dog and Mr. Cat Dog were good friends. They lived in the same case, how good brothers. One day they went to the market, bought a jar of butter, recovered him of salt and whit a clean cloth and white.
Then they were to, in their field, planting yams.
So said cat:
-dad dog, a cousin asked me to be today, godfather of his childl.
-Go, cat, dad dog did, I will work for both of us.
The cat went to the case and discovered the pot of butter, removed salt, ate a piece of butter, recovered the pot and came back.
-What called the godson; asked the dog.
He called Begun.
The dog said: funny name.
The next day, how they worked in the field, Mr cat exclaimed:
-They call me to be godfather to other cousins.
The dog said: Ah!
The cat went.
He still ate butter and returned.
-What is your second godchild?
-Mi - eaten
Funny name, "said dad dog.
The next day in the field, the cat suddenly said:
Oh no. They call me again. This time, I won't go. I don't want to leave you always work.
-What's there? Asked the dog.
-they asked me again to be godfather. But I want to help you. I won't go.
Go-go, sir cat, dad dog said. he must not confuse you with me to your friends.
-The cat went and ate the rest of the butter and returned.
-Well! Dad dog questioned, and this one, how does the call - on.
All-over, said the cat.
Well, said the dog. Meanwhile, I dug yams to eat with our butter.
They came to the case, made of fire, prepared the table. Then Dad dog saw butter jar is empty. M. cat, gently, went the door.
dad dog, not happy, is stopped in front of the door. So Mr. swollen cat back, breathed and hid under the bed.
-Glamor, lazy! said dog angry . I understand why the three godchildren called Begun, Mi-eaten and All-finished. We will settle this matter.
He put his nose under the bed? The cat scratches the dog and said:
Why do you put in this state and to querell a friend for a wicked pot of better that the heat has melted, ask soonner your good friend that goes by dad dog turned his head the cat profited for jump him on his back scratch him on the ears, to pass through the door and climb the tree since that time the dog and cat are became hostile and refuses to reconcile.
Conte: The sacred forest
the people relate that a woman named Baloi, created a garden in a forest where no one should enter.
"how it was the first time since the creation of the world, that it was cultivated, this land prohibited, revealed him an extraordinary fertility, and the field produced in abundance, but would not Baloi harvest.
Some days, Tiémoko, her husband, who received foreign trade and land condimento is missing from the village, Baloi found more advantageous to use the products of field. She ordered to one of the servants to go pick a basket of okra.In all haste, Sarran, , went to the field, but as soon as it reaches out okra got to sing.
Charmed by a song as melodic sense that the young Sarran no more thought to picking the condiment or go home. On the contrary, it danced around the plant.
how the first servant was slow to return, Baloi appoints another. It found Sarran silent, turning and gesturing around the okra plant. Because it 's not heard the song - because it was a song of enchantment - it thougth natural that hiscorade amused her instead to doing what the master ordered. So without care for her, she deep directly on the plant, but just at that moment she heard the mysterious voice, seduices under the spell, she began to dance in cadence with Sarran.
A third and a fourth and a fifth sent home as a result of Sarran were included in the same conditions. So Baloi, nervous, went herself to the field with a long whip with intent determination to apply its servants deserved correction that merited their recklessness. When she saw them dancing in circles around plant of okra, she cried them on a tone of anger:
"I said you to do it quickly, because foreigners have hungry, and you are dancing here." But as soon as she reaches the hand about a big okra, she heard the song, and taken under the same charm as she began to dance in circles in the wake of his servants.
Intrigued by the prolonged absence of his wife and servants, Tiémoko Baloi's husband, warned the chief of land and the notables. We beat the drum of war and all that the village consisted of men went in search of the unfortunate. It was not long to find them in the sacred forest, a arm stretched and dancing in cadence . Suddenly, the song of okra became visible to all who were there.
Seeing this, the chief of land, the priest agrarian deities said: "Our fathers gave us this sacred forest that we must pass on intact to our children. For have profaning the place Baloi is held prisoner here".
The chief of land spray with the special couter,the woman and her servant, and on the spot they were removed from the magical influence of sacred wood. That's why with us, it is forbidden to grow in a sacred forest.
Wednesday, May 27, 2009
EMIGRATION
TOPIC: EMIGRATION
PLAN
INTRODUCTION
I/ DEFINITION
II/ PRE-MODERN EMIGRATION: HISTORY
III/ TYPES OF EMIGRATION
1/ THE CYCLIC MOVEMENT
2/ THE PERIODIC MOVEMENT
3/ THE EMIGRATORY
4/ RURAL EXODUS
IV/ CAUSES OF EMIGRATION
1/ PULL AND PULL FACTORS
2/ CLIMATES CYCLES CAUSES
3/ INDUSTRIALIZATION CAUSES
V/ MANIFESTATIONS OF EMIGRATION
1/ OFFICIAL EMIGRATION
2/ CLANDESTINE EMIGRATION
VI/ EFFECTS OF EMIGRATION
VII/ HOW TO REDUCE EMIGRATION?
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
Began high time, emigration is accelerated during that technology and big stories installations in the world, since the 18th century. It is causing climate, earth warning and rarity of rain which endanger faunal and floral species and people life. These phenomena do that, the environment does not procure food and protect people life. People displace from their home to take place else where: it is emigration of population.
Also conflicts and wars increase emigration in the world.
I/ DEFINITION OF EMIGRATION
Emigration of population is the movement of people out of theirs continents, region sour countries to take place elsewhere. .for example Europeans people emigrate to the America to take place 20 to 15 years ago end by 2 years ago, most of the pacific islands where colonized.
II/ PRE-MODERN EMIGRATION: HISTORY
Main articles: early human emigrations and History emigration. 2nd to century period. Historical emigration of human population begins with the movement of Homo erectus out of Africa across Eurasia about a million year ago. Homo sapiens appear to have colonized all of Africa about 150,000 years ago, moved out of Africa 70,000 years ago, and spread across Australia, Asia and Europe by 40,000 years ago. Emigration to the America took place 20 to 15,000 years ago, and by 2,000years ago, most of the pacific Islands were colonized. Later population movement nobobly include Neolithic Revolution, Indo-European expansion, and the early medieval great emigration including Turkic expansion.
Archaeological evidence indicates that the ancestors of the austronesions spread from the south Chinese mainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago.
Before the expansion of the languages and and their speakers, the southern half of Africa is believed to have been populated by pygmies and khoison speaking people, to day occupying the arid regions around the Kalahari desert and forest of central Africa. By about 1000 AD Bantu emigration had reached modern day Zimbabwe and Africa. The Bantu Hilal and Bantou Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who emigrated westward via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their emigration strongly contributed to the urbanization and islamisation of the western Maghreb, which was until then dominated by Berber tribes. Astsiedlung was the medieval eastward emigration and settlement of Germans. The 13th century was the time of the great Mongol and Turkic emigration across Eurasia.
Also, 1973, there are in Burkina Faso, people begins to emigrate into Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Guinea to work in cacao and coffee fields because the president Houphouet Boigny and Omar Bongo had asked them.
III/ TYPES OF EMIGRATION
1/THE CYCLIC MOVEMENT
The cyclic movement which involves commuting a seasonal movement and nomadism.
2/ THE PERIODIC MOVEMENT
The periodic movement which consists of emigrant labour, military service, and pastoral faming transhumance.
3/ THE EMIGRATORY MOVEMENT
The migratory movement that moves from the eastern part of the US to the western pat. It also moves from china to southest Asia from Europe the North America, and from South America to the middle part of the America.
4/ RURAL EXODUS
Rural exodus, emigration from rural areas to cities.
IV/ CAUSES OF EMIGRATIONS
Causes of emigration have modified over hundreds of years. Some cases are constant, some of them do not carry the some importance as years (for example: 18th and 19th centuries labour migration did not have the some character like to day).
In general, we can divide factors causing emigrations into many groups of factors:
1/ Push and pull factors
Push and pull factors are those factors which either forcefully push people into emigration or attract them. A push factor is forceful, and a factor which relates to the country from which a person emigrates. It’s generally some problem whish results in people wanting to emigrate. Different types of push factors can be further below. A push factor is a flaw or distress that drives a person away from a certain place. A pull factor is something concerning the country to rohich a person emigrates. It's generally a benefit that attracts people to certain.
2/ Climates cycles and emigration
The modern field of climate history. Suggests that the successive waves of Eurasion nomadic movement throu ghout history have had their origins in climatic cycles, which have expanded or contracted pastureland in central Asia (Mongolia and Altai) and North of Africa (Sahara). People were displaced from their home ground by other trying to fing lond that could be grazed by essential flocks, each group pushing the next further to the south and west, into the highlands of Anatolia, the plains, of Hungary rich pastures of china or of America and Europe.
3/ Industrialization cause
While the pace of emigration had accelerated since the 18th contury already (including the involuntary slave), it would increase further in the 19th contury. Manning distinguishes three major types of emigration: labour emigration, refugee emigrations, and lastly, urbanization. Millions of agricultural workers lift the countryside and moved to the cities. Causing onprecedented levels of urbanization. This phenomenon began in Britain in the late 18th contury and around the world and continues to this day in many areas.
The twentieth contury experienced also an increase in emigratory flows caused by war and politics. Muslins moved from the Balkan to turkey, while christianias moved the other way during the collapse. Of the Ottoman Empire. 400000 Jews moved to Palestine in the early twentieth century. The Russian civil war causes some 3 millions Russians, poles and Germans to emigrate out of the Soviet Union. World II and decolonization also caused emigrations any were in the world.
For example World War II displaced 20 millions people from their home.
V/ Manifestations of emigration
Manifestation of emigration can divide into two groups: official emigration and clandestine emigration.
- Official emigration obeys law of administration. The interesting people benefits in aid part of administration (visa, carte d’indentity, passport….). They aren’t problem in the countries which, they emigrates.
- Clandestine emigration doesn’t obey law of administration. They aren’t papers which show their identity. They expose with many problems such as expulsion, requisitization. Also we can say that emigration manifest in the poor countries (African, Asia, Oceania countries) into riches or industrial counties (Europe, America…..).
This form of emigrations is call international or intercontinental emigration. For example young people of Africa emigrate to America and Europe to reach job. So as certain stay or come back in their countries.
VI- Effect of emigration
Emigration like any other process shapes many fields of life, having both advantage and disadvantages.
Effet of emigrations are:
- Changes distribution
- Demographic consequences: since emigration is selective of particular age groups, migrants are mostly young and in productive age. It can cause a demographic crisis-population ageing, what in tern can be followed by economic problems (shrinking group of economically active population has to finance extending group of inactive population).
- Economic results, which are of the greatest importance for the development of the countries. Emigration has a significant effect on world geography.
- It has contributed to the evolution and development of separated cultures.
- It contributed to the diffusion of cultures and communication.
- It has contributed to the complex mix of people and cultures found indifferent regions of the world today.
VII- How to reduce emigration?
To reduce or to eradicate emigration in the world, we suggest the following measures.
First off all, it is important to sensitize the population about the problem role played by emigration. For example, if they will aware that their successful aren’t based to emigrate, they will stoy in their countries and to succeed. Second, government must make many employ for the young people. Indeed, popularization irrigates agriculture by making many road blocks and popularizes agriculture technology (tractor, harvester, seed select…). Also, government can help student associations or young organization by financial to make grow these enterprises or their work-shop. Third and last, people and government must find climate change of environment by reforestations, forbid the cutting of trees fining woodcutters, and reduce pollution of environment because these natural disasters accelerate emigrations. Also, environment is our shelter that we must do our best to find the best protective means.
Conclusion
The emigration is movement of population into other countries. This movement of population begins a long time. It does accelerate in the 18th century with industrialization wars, conflicts, push and pull, and natural disasters such as climate displacement of people meeting or causing many problems (social and cultural). However, it makes advantages (successful, diffusion of culture…).
But in generally, it is important to reduce emigrations by many measures (sensitization, make many employs and find depression) in order to hold back young people in their countries and help government to build their countries.
Sebgo Jemima N.W
Sou Clara
Nana Nadège
Traoré Alassane
Gampiné Aissata
Dimi Christelle
PLAN
INTRODUCTION
I/ DEFINITION
II/ PRE-MODERN EMIGRATION: HISTORY
III/ TYPES OF EMIGRATION
1/ THE CYCLIC MOVEMENT
2/ THE PERIODIC MOVEMENT
3/ THE EMIGRATORY
4/ RURAL EXODUS
IV/ CAUSES OF EMIGRATION
1/ PULL AND PULL FACTORS
2/ CLIMATES CYCLES CAUSES
3/ INDUSTRIALIZATION CAUSES
V/ MANIFESTATIONS OF EMIGRATION
1/ OFFICIAL EMIGRATION
2/ CLANDESTINE EMIGRATION
VI/ EFFECTS OF EMIGRATION
VII/ HOW TO REDUCE EMIGRATION?
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
Began high time, emigration is accelerated during that technology and big stories installations in the world, since the 18th century. It is causing climate, earth warning and rarity of rain which endanger faunal and floral species and people life. These phenomena do that, the environment does not procure food and protect people life. People displace from their home to take place else where: it is emigration of population.
Also conflicts and wars increase emigration in the world.
I/ DEFINITION OF EMIGRATION
Emigration of population is the movement of people out of theirs continents, region sour countries to take place elsewhere. .for example Europeans people emigrate to the America to take place 20 to 15 years ago end by 2 years ago, most of the pacific islands where colonized.
II/ PRE-MODERN EMIGRATION: HISTORY
Main articles: early human emigrations and History emigration. 2nd to century period. Historical emigration of human population begins with the movement of Homo erectus out of Africa across Eurasia about a million year ago. Homo sapiens appear to have colonized all of Africa about 150,000 years ago, moved out of Africa 70,000 years ago, and spread across Australia, Asia and Europe by 40,000 years ago. Emigration to the America took place 20 to 15,000 years ago, and by 2,000years ago, most of the pacific Islands were colonized. Later population movement nobobly include Neolithic Revolution, Indo-European expansion, and the early medieval great emigration including Turkic expansion.
Archaeological evidence indicates that the ancestors of the austronesions spread from the south Chinese mainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago.
Before the expansion of the languages and and their speakers, the southern half of Africa is believed to have been populated by pygmies and khoison speaking people, to day occupying the arid regions around the Kalahari desert and forest of central Africa. By about 1000 AD Bantu emigration had reached modern day Zimbabwe and Africa. The Bantu Hilal and Bantou Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who emigrated westward via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their emigration strongly contributed to the urbanization and islamisation of the western Maghreb, which was until then dominated by Berber tribes. Astsiedlung was the medieval eastward emigration and settlement of Germans. The 13th century was the time of the great Mongol and Turkic emigration across Eurasia.
Also, 1973, there are in Burkina Faso, people begins to emigrate into Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Guinea to work in cacao and coffee fields because the president Houphouet Boigny and Omar Bongo had asked them.
III/ TYPES OF EMIGRATION
1/THE CYCLIC MOVEMENT
The cyclic movement which involves commuting a seasonal movement and nomadism.
2/ THE PERIODIC MOVEMENT
The periodic movement which consists of emigrant labour, military service, and pastoral faming transhumance.
3/ THE EMIGRATORY MOVEMENT
The migratory movement that moves from the eastern part of the US to the western pat. It also moves from china to southest Asia from Europe the North America, and from South America to the middle part of the America.
4/ RURAL EXODUS
Rural exodus, emigration from rural areas to cities.
IV/ CAUSES OF EMIGRATIONS
Causes of emigration have modified over hundreds of years. Some cases are constant, some of them do not carry the some importance as years (for example: 18th and 19th centuries labour migration did not have the some character like to day).
In general, we can divide factors causing emigrations into many groups of factors:
1/ Push and pull factors
Push and pull factors are those factors which either forcefully push people into emigration or attract them. A push factor is forceful, and a factor which relates to the country from which a person emigrates. It’s generally some problem whish results in people wanting to emigrate. Different types of push factors can be further below. A push factor is a flaw or distress that drives a person away from a certain place. A pull factor is something concerning the country to rohich a person emigrates. It's generally a benefit that attracts people to certain.
2/ Climates cycles and emigration
The modern field of climate history. Suggests that the successive waves of Eurasion nomadic movement throu ghout history have had their origins in climatic cycles, which have expanded or contracted pastureland in central Asia (Mongolia and Altai) and North of Africa (Sahara). People were displaced from their home ground by other trying to fing lond that could be grazed by essential flocks, each group pushing the next further to the south and west, into the highlands of Anatolia, the plains, of Hungary rich pastures of china or of America and Europe.
3/ Industrialization cause
While the pace of emigration had accelerated since the 18th contury already (including the involuntary slave), it would increase further in the 19th contury. Manning distinguishes three major types of emigration: labour emigration, refugee emigrations, and lastly, urbanization. Millions of agricultural workers lift the countryside and moved to the cities. Causing onprecedented levels of urbanization. This phenomenon began in Britain in the late 18th contury and around the world and continues to this day in many areas.
The twentieth contury experienced also an increase in emigratory flows caused by war and politics. Muslins moved from the Balkan to turkey, while christianias moved the other way during the collapse. Of the Ottoman Empire. 400000 Jews moved to Palestine in the early twentieth century. The Russian civil war causes some 3 millions Russians, poles and Germans to emigrate out of the Soviet Union. World II and decolonization also caused emigrations any were in the world.
For example World War II displaced 20 millions people from their home.
V/ Manifestations of emigration
Manifestation of emigration can divide into two groups: official emigration and clandestine emigration.
- Official emigration obeys law of administration. The interesting people benefits in aid part of administration (visa, carte d’indentity, passport….). They aren’t problem in the countries which, they emigrates.
- Clandestine emigration doesn’t obey law of administration. They aren’t papers which show their identity. They expose with many problems such as expulsion, requisitization. Also we can say that emigration manifest in the poor countries (African, Asia, Oceania countries) into riches or industrial counties (Europe, America…..).
This form of emigrations is call international or intercontinental emigration. For example young people of Africa emigrate to America and Europe to reach job. So as certain stay or come back in their countries.
VI- Effect of emigration
Emigration like any other process shapes many fields of life, having both advantage and disadvantages.
Effet of emigrations are:
- Changes distribution
- Demographic consequences: since emigration is selective of particular age groups, migrants are mostly young and in productive age. It can cause a demographic crisis-population ageing, what in tern can be followed by economic problems (shrinking group of economically active population has to finance extending group of inactive population).
- Economic results, which are of the greatest importance for the development of the countries. Emigration has a significant effect on world geography.
- It has contributed to the evolution and development of separated cultures.
- It contributed to the diffusion of cultures and communication.
- It has contributed to the complex mix of people and cultures found indifferent regions of the world today.
VII- How to reduce emigration?
To reduce or to eradicate emigration in the world, we suggest the following measures.
First off all, it is important to sensitize the population about the problem role played by emigration. For example, if they will aware that their successful aren’t based to emigrate, they will stoy in their countries and to succeed. Second, government must make many employ for the young people. Indeed, popularization irrigates agriculture by making many road blocks and popularizes agriculture technology (tractor, harvester, seed select…). Also, government can help student associations or young organization by financial to make grow these enterprises or their work-shop. Third and last, people and government must find climate change of environment by reforestations, forbid the cutting of trees fining woodcutters, and reduce pollution of environment because these natural disasters accelerate emigrations. Also, environment is our shelter that we must do our best to find the best protective means.
Conclusion
The emigration is movement of population into other countries. This movement of population begins a long time. It does accelerate in the 18th century with industrialization wars, conflicts, push and pull, and natural disasters such as climate displacement of people meeting or causing many problems (social and cultural). However, it makes advantages (successful, diffusion of culture…).
But in generally, it is important to reduce emigrations by many measures (sensitization, make many employs and find depression) in order to hold back young people in their countries and help government to build their countries.
Sebgo Jemima N.W
Sou Clara
Nana Nadège
Traoré Alassane
Gampiné Aissata
Dimi Christelle
Monday, May 18, 2009
Children Soldiers
MEMBERS
-yanogo carine -sawadogo fanta -kabré aminata -dakouré salimata -ziwaga moussa
INTRODUCTIONA child is a person below eighteen (18) years who belongs to a regular or irregular armed group. Many people say that they are machines to kill. According to a statistics of Amnesty international, there are at the beginning of the millennium, more than three hundred thousand (3OO,OO) children soldiers in the world, of which one third (1/3) are in Africa, that is one hundred thirty thousand (13O,OOO). These children carry weapons, or they are cooks, carriers, or messengers. These children, wearing short trousers, demobilized or not can be fund currently in Algeria, Burundi, Angola, Djibouti and other countries.
I-Reasons
1-At the children level
Some children join voluntary the ranks of the army. What can a hungry child or an orphan who finds himself alone in the street without eating do? To join the army, is to ensure a daily meal. And they let themselves be persuaded by promises such as shoes, clothes, beauty weapons for their security.
In some cases, when the family has been destroyed, children sometimes want only to take revenge for what they suffered.
Moreover, many of these children are kidnapped in schools, stadiums, streets or even in churches.
On the side of armies, the reasons can be easily understood. In war, children are said to be fearless. Children are less demanding soldiers than adults. They are cheaper to keep as they eat less and are easier to manipulate.
The right to education is also a factor which isn’t respected by all countries because a lack of means or will. In fact, children who aren’t literate but must still find a job in order to cover their needs. Therefore, enlisting is an alternative job.
One of the reasons would be the presence of a number of lighter weapons such as Kalashnikov, carabine M-16. These weapons can be easily manipulated by children: that is increasing their possibilities of taking part in the battles.
- What formations do they receive?
1-Boys
Once in army, soldiers are going to teach how to kill, make them insensible to death and pain. For that, soldiers give to children some drugs and alcohol which make them violence and care free. So, they will be able to commit many things such as suicide missions and other criminal acts.
2-Gilrs
As for girls, they don’t receive any formation but they are rather at the service of soldiers as sexual slaves.
1-At the children level
Children are the first victims of the war. At the same time executioners and victims, they would become witnesses of murder of their family. In the last ten (10) years, two million (2OOO,OOO) among them have been killer in the conflicts , six million (6OO;OOO) was seriously injured, a one million (1OOO,OOO) was becoming orphans and more than twenty million (2OOOO,OOO) was displaced through the world. We notice also that, girls are exposed to sexual illnesses and unwanted pregnancies.
2-Social consequences
The condition of many children‘s lives make that they are become a burden for the society. These children when they manage to escape from wars, they have difficulties to become integrated into the society. They are often dangerous for the society because they contribute to increase insecurity by causing violence. Seeing that several among children are becoming orphans, it’s a burden for the society. This burden is that the society must feed them and ensure their future: that is not easy because it requires too much funds.
IV- Solutions
- Contribution of various organisations
In Africa the United Nation and other organisations support the DDR (Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Rehabilitation) programmes. These programmes are extremely important to rebuild peace and for the stability as development in long term of the societies after conflicts.
Disarm, demobilize, this is relatively easy but what can be done for their reintegration in the civil life? Furthermore the reintegration within community will not be sufficient if children aren’t able to go to school or to earn their life. For this, there are for instance centre of rehabilitation in which girls learn to make basketwork.
- Suggestions to stop the use of children soldiers
To put an end to the recruitment of children soldiers and boost their reintegration, the governments and opposition armed groups have to:
-Make easier the demobilization of children and the rehabilitation of children.
-Make use of others politics than the recruitment in army, particularly as far as jobs concerned and education, and make steps to prevent the new recruitment of demobilized children particularly for the displaced children .
Conclusion
It would be good to know all the texts regarding children. We can keep ourselves informed about everything UNICEF, and Amnesty International. We can also try to live more deeply “children soldiers’ day” every 12th February and “African children 16th June. Finally, we can support the aid programme for children soldiers and invest ourselves in the ratification campaign of the ratification campaign of the treaty against this practice of children soldiers. Together, we can react against this phenomenon because children are the future of our nations.
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